越南语音标

penkyamp 發表於 2008-8-17 04:44:41

<h2>Description</h2>
The Vietnamese alphabet, called Chữ Quốc Ngữ (script of the national language), usually shortened to <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_Ng%E1%BB%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:Quốc Ngữ">Quốc Ngữ</a> (national language), is the current writing system for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a>. It is based on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> (more specifically the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_alphabet" title="Portuguese alphabet">Portuguese version</a> of it) with some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> and the addition of nine accent marks or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a> — four of them to create additional sounds, and the other five to indicate the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonal_language" title="Tonal language">tone</a> of each word. The many diacritics, often two on the same letter, make written Vietnamese easily recognizable.
<a name="Letter_names_and_pronunciation" id="Letter_names_and_pronunciation"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Letter names and pronunciation">edit</a>] Letter names and pronunciation</h2>
<div class="boilerplate metadata ipanotice" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); margin: 0.5em; padding: 0pt 0.5em; float: right; clear: right; width: 15em; background-color: rgb(243, 249, 255); font-size: 80%;">
Note: This page or section contains <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>. See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA" class="mw-redirect">Help:IPA</a> for a pronunciation key.
</div>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<caption>Vietnamese alphabet</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Letter</th>
<th>Name</th>
<th>IPA</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A" title="A">A</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A" title="A">a</a></td>
<td>a</td>
<td>aː</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82" title="Ă">Ă</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82" title="Ă">ă</a></td>
<td>á</td>
<td>a</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82" title="Â">Â</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82" title="Â">â</a></td>
<td>ớ</td>
<td>ə, ɜ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B" title="B">B</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B" title="B">b</a></td>
<td>bê, bờ</td>
<td>ɓ, ʔb</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C" title="C">C</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C" title="C">c</a></td>
<td>xê, cờ</td>
<td>k</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D" title="D">D</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D" title="D">d</a></td>
<td>dê, dờ</td>
<td>northern pronunciation: z, southern pronunciation : j</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90" title="Đ" class="mw-redirect">Đ</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90" title="Đ" class="mw-redirect">đ</a></td>
<td>đê, đờ</td>
<td>ɗ, ʔd</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E" title="E">E</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E" title="E">e</a></td>
<td>e</td>
<td>ɛ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8A" title="Ê">Ê</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8A" title="Ê">ê</a></td>
<td>ê</td>
<td>e</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F" title="F">F</a>) (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F" title="F">f</a>)</td>
<td>ép</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G" title="G">G</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G" title="G">g</a></td>
<td>giê, gờ</td>
<td>ɣ 
ʒ（before i, ê, and e）</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H" title="H">H</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H" title="H">h</a></td>
<td>hát, hờ</td>
<td>h</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I" title="I">I</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I" title="I">i</a></td>
<td>i ngắn</td>
<td>i</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J" title="J">J</a>) (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J" title="J">j</a>)</td>
<td>gi</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K" title="K">K</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K" title="K">k</a></td>
<td>ca, kờ</td>
<td>k</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L" title="L">L</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L" title="L">l</a></td>
<td>e-lờ, lờ</td>
<td>l</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M" title="M">M</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M" title="M">m</a></td>
<td>em-mờ, mờ</td>
<td>m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N" title="N">N</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N" title="N">n</a></td>
<td>en-nờ, nờ</td>
<td>n</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O" title="O">O</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O" title="O">o</a></td>
<td>o</td>
<td>ɔ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94" title="Ô" class="mw-redirect">Ô</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94" title="Ô" class="mw-redirect">ô</a></td>
<td>ô</td>
<td>o</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%A0" title="Ơ">Ơ</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%A0" title="Ơ">ơ</a></td>
<td>ơ</td>
<td>əː, ɜː</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P" title="P">P</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P" title="P">p</a></td>
<td>pê, pờ</td>
<td>p</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q" title="Q">Q</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q" title="Q">q</a></td>
<td>cu, quy, quờ</td>
<td>k</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R" title="R">R</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R" title="R">r</a></td>
<td>e-rờ, rờ</td>
<td>northern pronunciation: z, southern pronunciation : ʐ, ɹ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S" title="S">S</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S" title="S">s</a></td>
<td>ét-sì, sờ</td>
<td>s, southern pronunciation : ʂ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T" title="T">T</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T" title="T">t</a></td>
<td>tê, tờ</td>
<td>t</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U" title="U">U</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U" title="U">u</a></td>
<td>u</td>
<td>u</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%AF" title="Ư">Ư</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%AF" title="Ư">ư</a></td>
<td>ư</td>
<td>ɯ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V" title="V">V</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V" title="V">v</a></td>
<td>vê, vờ</td>
<td>v, southern pronunciation : j</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W" title="W">W</a>) (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W" title="W">w</a>)</td>
<td>vê kép, vê-đúp</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X" title="X">X</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X" title="X">x</a></td>
<td>ích-xì, xờ</td>
<td>s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y" title="Y">Y</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y" title="Y">y</a></td>
<td>i dài, i-cờ-rét</td>
<td>i</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z" title="Z">Z</a>) (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z" title="Z">z</a>)</td>
<td>giét</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<a name="Consonants" id="Consonants"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>] Consonants</h2>
Most of the consonants are pronounced approximately as in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a>, with the following clarifications:
<ul><li>Both D and GI are pronounced either in the northern dialects (including Hanoi), or (similar to English y) in the central and Saigon dialects.</li><li>Đ is similar to a sound in many languages. Vietnamese đ, however, is additionally pronounced with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> immediately preceding or simultaneous with it.</li><li>S is pronounced like the English sh for the southern dialect and some central dialects; however, it is pronounced like English s among the northern dialects.</li><li>V is pronounced in the northern dialects, or and in the southern dialects.</li><li>X is pronounced like English s (at the beginning of a word, e.g. "sing").</li><li>CH is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_stop" title="Voiceless palatal stop" class="mw-redirect">voiceless palatal stop</a> (IPA: , similar to English c in "cute") or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate" class="mw-redirect">affricate</a> (IPA: [ʧ], similar to English ch in "chip").</li><li>KH is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">voiceless velar fricative</a> (IPA: ). It is similar to the German or Scottish ch, Russian x, Mandarin h, Spanish j, or Arabic and Persian "خ" (kh). It is never pronounced like English k or Hindi "ख" (kh).</li><li>NG is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal" title="Velar nasal">velar nasal</a> (IPA: [ŋ]). It is similar to both occurrences of ng in English "singing". It is never pronounced like English n, or n plus g.</li><li>NH is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_nasal" title="Palatal nasal">palatal nasal</a> (IPA: [ɲ]), similar to Polish ń, Spanish ñ, Portuguese nh, or French and Italian gn.</li><li>PH is pronounced , as in English "Philip". It is never pronounced like English p or Hindi "फ" (ph).</li><li>TH is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_%28phonetics%29" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> t (IPA: ). It is similar to the "थ" (th) sound in Hindi or the t sound in English when pronounced at the beginning of a word. It is never pronounced like the English th or French/Spanish t.</li><li>TR is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex</a> t (in the southern regions) and pronounced like the Vietnamese ch in the northern dialects. Its only other equivalent is the Mandarin Chinese retroflex ch. Mandarin Chinese words that start with ch or zh usually correspond to Sino-Vietnamese words that start with tr.</li></ul>
The digraph GH and the trigraph NGH are basically variants of g and ng used before i, in order to avoid confusion with the digraph GI. For historical reasons, they are also used before e or ê.
<a name="Vowels" id="Vowels"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>] Vowels</h2>
<a name="Pronunciation" id="Pronunciation"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pronunciation">edit</a>] Pronunciation</h3>
The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is
somewhat complicated. In some cases, the same letter may represent
several different sounds, and different letters may represent the same
sound. This may be due to the fact that the orthography was designed
centuries ago and the spoken language has changed, or to an attempt by
the inventors to spell the sounds of several dialects at once.
(Similarly, standard English spelling includes for historical reasons
both the letters h and r, and yet there are many dialects of English pronunciation which drop one or the other.)
The letters y and i are mostly equivalent, and there
is no rule that says when to use one or the other. There have been
attempts since the early 20th century to standardize the orthography by
replacing all the vowel uses of y with i, the latest
being a decision from the Vietnamese Ministry of Education in 1984.
These efforts seem to have had limited effect, in part because some
people bristled at the thought of names such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n" title="Nguyễn">Nguyễn</a> becoming Nguiễn and Thúy (a common female name) becoming Thúi
(stinky), even though the standardization does not apply to diphthongs
and triphthongs and allowed exceptions to proper names. Currently, the
spelling that uses i exclusively is found only in scientific
publications and textbooks. Most people and the popular media continue
to use the spelling that they are most accustomed to.
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Spelling</th>
<th>Sound</th>
<th>Spelling</th>
<th>Sound</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">a</td>
<td> /ɐː/, /ɐ/, /ɜ/</td>
<td align="center">o</td>
<td> /ɔ/, /ɐw/, /w/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ă</td>
<td> /ɐ/</td>
<td align="center">ô</td>
<td> /o/, /ɜw/, /ɜ/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">â</td>
<td> /ɜ/</td>
<td align="center">ơ</td>
<td> /əː/, /ɜ/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">e</td>
<td> /ɛ/</td>
<td align="center">u</td>
<td> /u/, /w/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">ê</td>
<td> /e/, /ɜ/</td>
<td align="center">ư</td>
<td> /ɨ/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">i</td>
<td> /i/, /j/</td>
<td align="center">y</td>
<td> /i/, /j/</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<a name="Spelling" id="Spelling"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Spelling">edit</a>] Spelling</h3>
<a name="Monophthongs" id="Monophthongs"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Monophthongs">edit</a>] Monophthongs</h4>
The table below matches Vietnamese vowels (written in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA" class="mw-redirect">IPA</a>) and their respective orthographic symbols used in the writing system.
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Sound</th>
<th>Spelling</th>
<th>Sound</th>
<th>Spelling</th>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td align="center">/i/</td>
<td>i, y</td>
<td align="center">/e/</td>
<td>ê</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td align="center">/ɛ/</td>
<td>e</td>
<td align="center">/ɨ/</td>
<td>ư</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td align="center">/əː/</td>
<td>ơ</td>
<td align="center">/ɜ/</td>
<td>â</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td align="center">/ɐː/</td>
<td>a</td>
<td align="center">/ɐ/</td>
<td>ă</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td align="center">/u/</td>
<td>u</td>
<td align="center">/o/</td>
<td>ô</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td align="center">/ɔ/</td>
<td>o</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
Notes:
The vowel /i/ is:
<ul><li>usually written i: /si/ = sĩ (A suffix indicating profession, similar to the English suffix -er).</li><li>sometimes written y: /mi/ = Mỹ 'America'.
<ul><li>It is always written y when:</li></ul>
</li></ul>
<dl><dd>
<ol><li>preceded by an orthographic vowel: /xwiɜn/ = khuyên 'to advise';</li><li>at the beginning of a word derived from Chinese (written as i otherwise): /iɜw/ = yêu 'to love'.</li></ol>
</dd></dl>
Note that i and y are also used to write the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant_consonant" title="Approximant consonant">approximant consonant</a> /j/.
<a name="Diphthongs_and_triphthongs" id="Diphthongs_and_triphthongs"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diphthongs and triphthongs">edit</a>] Diphthongs and triphthongs</h4>
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Sound</th>
<th>Spelling</th>
<th>Sound</th>
<th>Spelling</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="4">Diphthongs</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/uj/</td>
<td>ui</td>
<td align="center">/iw/</td>
<td>iu</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/oj/</td>
<td>ôi</td>
<td align="center">/ew/</td>
<td>êu</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɔj/</td>
<td>oi</td>
<td align="center">/ɛw/</td>
<td>eo</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/əːj/</td>
<td>ơi</td>
<td align="center">/əːw/</td>
<td>ơu</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɜj/</td>
<td>ây, ê</td>
<td align="center">/ɜw/</td>
<td>âu, ô</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɐːj/</td>
<td>ai</td>
<td align="center">/ɐːw/</td>
<td>ao</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɐj/</td>
<td>ay, a</td>
<td align="center">/ɐw/</td>
<td>au, o</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɨj/</td>
<td>ưi</td>
<td align="center">/ɨw/</td>
<td>ưu</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/iɜ/</td>
<td>ia, ya, iê, yê</td>
<td align="center">/uɜ/</td>
<td>ua, uô</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɨɜ/</td>
<td>ưa, ươ</td>
<td align="center">/uw/</td>
<td>uy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="4">Triphthongs</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/iɜw/</td>
<td>iêu, yêu</td>
<td align="center">/uɜj/</td>
<td>uôi</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɨɜj/</td>
<td>ươi</td>
<td align="center">/ɨɜw/</td>
<td>ươu</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
Notes:
The diphthong /iɜ/ is written:
<ol><li>ia in open syllables: /miɜ/ = mía 'sugar cane' (note: open <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> end with a vowel; closed syllables end with a consonant);</li><li>iê before a consonant: /miɜŋ/ = miếng 'piece';</li></ol>
The i changes to y at the beginning of words or after an orthographic vowel:
<ul><li>ya: /xwiɜ/ = khuya 'late at night'</li><li>yê: /xwiɜn/ = khuyên 'to advise'; /iɜn/ = yên 'calm'.</li></ul>
The diphthong /uɜ/ is written:
<ol><li>ua in open syllables: /muɜ/ = mua 'to buy';</li><li>uô before a consonant: /muɜn/ = muôn 'ten thousand'.</li></ol>
The diphthong /ɨɜ/ is written:
<ol><li>ưa in open syllables: /mɨɜ/ = mưa 'to rain';</li><li>ươ before consonants: /mɨɜŋ/ = mương 'irrigation canal'.</li></ol>
<a name="Tone_marks" id="Tone_marks"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tone marks">edit</a>] Tone marks</h2>
Vietnamese is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonal_language" title="Tonal language">tonal language</a>, i.e. the meaning of each word depends on the "tone" (basically a specific <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalization</a>
pattern) in which it is pronounced. There are six distinct tones in the
standard, Northern, dialect (Southern dialects have only five). The
first one ("level tone") is not marked, and the other five are
indicated by diacritics applied to the vowel part of the syllable.
<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto; text-align: center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th align="center">Name</th>
<th align="center">Contour</th>
<th align="center">Diacritic</th>
<th colspan="2" align="center">Accented Vowels</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Ngang</td>
<td align="left">mid level, ˧</td>
<td align="left">unmarked</td>
<td>A/a, Ă/ă, Â/â, E/e, Ê/ê, I/i, O/o, Ô/ô, Ơ/ơ, U/u, Ư/ư, Y/y</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Huyền</td>
<td align="left">low falling, ˨˩</td>
<td align="left"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a></td>
<td>À/à, Ằ/ằ, Ầ/ầ, È/è, Ề/ề, Ì/ì, Ò/ò, Ồ/ồ, Ờ/ờ, Ù/ù, Ừ/ừ, Ỳ/ỳ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Sắc</td>
<td align="left">high rising, ˧˥</td>
<td align="left"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a></td>
<td>Á/á, Ắ/ắ, Ấ/ấ, É/é, Ế/ế, Í/í, Ó/ó, Ố/ố, Ớ/ớ, Ú/ú, Ứ/ứ, Ý/ý</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Hỏi</td>
<td align="left">dipping, ˧˩˧</td>
<td align="left"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_%28diacritic%29" title="Hook (diacritic)">hook</a></td>
<td>Ả/ả, Ẳ/ẳ, Ẩ/ẩ, Ẻ/ẻ, Ể/ể, Ỉ/ỉ, Ỏ/ỏ, Ổ/ổ, Ở/ở, Ủ/ủ, Ử/ử, Ỷ/ỷ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Ngã</td>
<td align="left">glottalized rising, ˧ˀ˥</td>
<td align="left"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a></td>
<td>Ã/ã, Ẵ/ẵ, Ẫ/ẫ, Ẽ/ẽ, Ễ/ễ, Ĩ/ĩ, Õ/õ, Ỗ/ỗ, Ỡ/ỡ, Ũ/ũ, Ữ/ữ, Ỹ/ỹ</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Nặng</td>
<td align="left">glottalized falling, ˧ˀ˨</td>
<td align="left"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_%28diacritic%29" title="Dot (diacritic)">dot below</a></td>
<td>Ạ/ạ, Ặ/ặ, Ậ/ậ, Ẹ/ẹ, Ệ/ệ, Ị/ị, Ọ/ọ, Ộ/ộ, Ợ/ợ, Ụ/ụ, Ự/ự, Ỵ/ỵ</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li>Unmarked vowels are pronounced with a level voice, in the middle of the speaking range.</li><li>The grave accent indicates that the speaker should start somewhat low and drop slightly in tone.</li><li>The acute accent indicates that the speaker should start high and rise sharply in tone.</li><li>The hook indicates that the speaker should start somewhat low, and fall, then rise, as in a question.</li><li>A tilde indicates that the speaker should start high, then dip and rise like a question in tone.</li><li>The dot signifies that the speaker should start low and fall lower in tone.</li></ul>
In syllables where the vowel part consists of more than one vowel
(such as diphthongs and triphthongs), the placement of the tone is
still a matter of debate. Generally, there are two methodologies, an
"old style" and a "new style". While the "old style" emphasizes
aesthetics by placing the tone mark as close as possible to the center
of the word (by placing the tone mark on the last vowel if an ending
consonant part exists and on the next-to-last vowel if the ending
consonant doesn't exist, as in hóa), the "new style" emphasizes linguistic principles and tries to apply the tone mark on the main vowel (as in hoá).
In both styles, when one vowel already has a quality diacritic on it,
the tone mark must be applied to it as well, regardless of where it
appears in the syllable (thus thuế is acceptable while thúê is not). In the case of the ươ diphthong, the mark is placed on the ơ. The u in qu
is considered part of the consonant. Currently, the new style is
usually used in new documents, while some people still prefer the old
style.
The lowercase letter i should retain its dot even when
accented. (However, this detail is often lost in computers and on the
Internet, due to the obscurity of Vietnamese specialty fonts and
limitations of encoding systems.)
In lexical ordering, differences in letters are treated as primary,
differences in tone markings as secondary, and differences in case as
tertiary differences. Ordering according to primary and secondary
differences proceeds syllable by syllable. According to this principle,
a dictionary lists tuân thủ before tuần chay because the secondary difference in the first syllable takes precedence over the primary difference in the second.
<a name="Structure" id="Structure"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>] Structure</h2>
Due to influence from the Chinese writing system, each <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a>
in Vietnamese is written separately as if it were a word. In the past,
syllables in multisyllabic words were concatenated with hyphens, but
this practice had died out, and hyphenation is now reserved for foreign
borrowings. A written syllable consists of at most three parts, in the
following order from left to right:
<ol><li>An optional beginning consonant part</li><li>A required vowel <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_nucleus" title="Syllable nucleus">syllable nucleus</a> and the tone mark, if needed, applied above or below it</li><li>An optional ending consonant part, can only be one of the following: c, ch, m, n, ng, nh, p, t, or nothing.</li></ol>
<a name="History" id="History"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>] History</h2>
<dl><dd>Further information: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1n_T%E1%BB%B1" title="Hán Tự" class="mw-redirect">Hán Tự</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></dd></dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 302px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg" class="image" title="A page from Alexandre de Rhodes' 1651 dictionary"><img alt="A page from Alexandre de Rhodes' 1651 dictionary" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg/300px-L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="300" border="0" height="408"></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11"></a></div>
A page from Alexandre de Rhodes' 1651 dictionary</div>
</div>
</div>
The Vietnamese language was first written down, from the 13th century onwards, using variant <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_script" title="Chinese script" class="mw-redirect">Chinese characters</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_nom" title="Chu nom" class="mw-redirect">chữ nôm</a> 字喃), each of them representing one word. The system was based on the script used for writing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">classical Chinese</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_nho" title="Chu nho" class="mw-redirect">chữ nho</a>), but it was supplemented with characters developed in Vietnam (chữ thuần nôm, proper Nom characters) to represent native Vietnamese words.
As early as 1527, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian" title="Christian">Christian</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> in Vietnam began using the Latin alphabet to transcribe the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a>
for teaching and evangelization purposes. These informal efforts led
eventually to the development of the present Vietnamese alphabet,
largely by the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuit" title="Jesuit" class="mw-redirect">Jesuit</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes" class="mw-redirect">Alexandre de Rhodes</a>, who worked in the country between 1624 and 1644. Building on previous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>-Vietnamese dictionaries by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaspar_d%27Amaral&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaspar d'Amaral (page does not exist)">Gaspar d'Amaral</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duarte_da_Costa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Duarte da Costa (page does not exist)">Duarte da Costa</a>, Rhodes wrote a Vietnamese-Portuguese-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> dictionary, which was printed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in 1651, using his spelling system.
In spite of this development, chữ nôm and chữ nho
remained in use until the early 20th century, when the French colonial
administration made Rhodes's alphabet official. Nationalists embraced
the script as a weapon to fight the French administration and heavily
promoted its use, setting up schools such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonkin_Free_School" title="Tonkin Free School">Tonkin Free School</a> and publishing periodicals utilizing this script. By the late 20th century, quốc ngữ
was universally used to write Vietnamese, such that literacy in the
previous Chinese character-based writing systems for Vietnamese is now
limited to a small number of scholars and specialists.
Because the period of education necessary to gain initial literacy
is considerably less for the largely phonetic Latin-based script
compared to the several years necessary to master the full range of
Chinese characters, the adoption of the Vietnamese alphabet also
facilitated widespread literacy among Vietnamese speakers—whereas a
majority of Vietnamese in Vietnam could not read or write prior to the
20th century, the population is now almost universally literate.
<a name="Sino-Vietnamese_and_qu.E1.BB.91c_ng.E1.BB.AF" id="Sino-Vietnamese_and_qu.E1.BB.91c_ng.E1.BB.AF"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sino-Vietnamese and quốc ngữ">edit</a>] Sino-Vietnamese and quốc ngữ</h2>
<dl><dd>Further information: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a></dd></dl>
Writing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese words</a> with quốc ngữ
caused some confusion about the origins of some terms, due to the large
number of homophones in Chinese and Sino-Vietnamese. For example, both <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E" class="extiw" title="wikt:明">明</a> (bright) and <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%86%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:冥">冥</a> (dark) are read as minh,
which therefore has two opposite meanings (although the meaning of
"dark" is now esoteric and is used in only a few compound words).
Perhaps for this reason, the Vietnamese name for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> is not Minh Vương Tinh (冥王星 - lit. underworld king star) as in other East Asian languages, but is Diêm Vương Tinh (閻王星), named after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> deity <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yama_%28Buddhism_and_Chinese_mythology%29" title="Yama (Buddhism and Chinese mythology)">Yama</a>. During the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_Dynasty" title="Ho Dynasty" class="mw-redirect">Ho Dynasty</a>, Vietnam was officially known as Đại Ngu (大虞 - Great Yu). Unfortunately, most modern Vietnamese know ngu as "stupid" (愚);
consequently, some misinterpret it as "Big Idiot". However, the
homograph/homophone problem is not as serious as it may seem, because
although many Sino-Vietnamese words have multiple meanings when written
with quốc ngữ, usually only one has widespread usage, while the
others are relegated to obscurity. Furthermore, Sino-Vietnamese words
are usually not used alone, but in compound words; thus, the meaning of
the compound word is preserved even if individually each has multiple
meanings. Most importantly, since quốc ngữ is an exact <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">phonemic transcription</a> of the spoken language, its understandability is as high or higher than a normal conversation.
<a name="Computer_support" id="Computer_support"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Computer support">edit</a>] Computer support</h2>
The universal character set <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>
has full support for the Vietnamese writing system, although it does
not have a separate segment for it; the required characters are
scattered throughout the Basic Latin, Latin-1 Supplement, Latin
Extended-A, Latin Extended-B, and Latin Extended Additional segments.
An <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a>-based writing convention, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIQR" title="VIQR" class="mw-redirect">Vietnamese Quoted Readable</a>, and several byte-based encodings including TCVN3, VNI, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISCII" title="VISCII" class="mw-redirect">VISCII</a> were widely used before Unicode became popular. Most new documents now exclusively use the Unicode format <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8" title="UTF-8">UTF-8</a>.
Unicode allows the user to choose between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precomposed_character" title="Precomposed character">precomposed characters</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combining_character" title="Combining character">combining characters</a>
in inputting Vietnamese. Due to the nonstandard way combining
characters are implemented in various operating systems, most people
use precomposed characters when composing Vietnamese-language documents.
Most keyboards used by Vietnamese-language users do not support direct input of diacritics by default. Various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free</a> utilities that act as keyboard drivers exist. They support the most popular input methods, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex_%28IME%29" title="Telex (IME)">Telex</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIQR" title="VIQR" class="mw-redirect">VIQR</a> and its variants, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VNI" title="VNI">VNI</a>.
<a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>] See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%82" title="Ă">Ă</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82" title="Â">Â</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90" title="Đ" class="mw-redirect">Đ</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8A" title="Ê">Ê</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94" title="Ô" class="mw-redirect">Ô</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%A0" title="Ơ">Ơ</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%AF" title="Ư">Ư</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_%28diacritic%29" title="Dot (diacritic)">Dot (diacritic)</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1n_t%E1%BB%B1" title="Hán tự">Hán tự</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_%28diacritic%29" title="Hook (diacritic)">Hook (diacritic)</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_%28diacritic%29" title="Horn (diacritic)">Horn (diacritic)</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_alphabet" title="Portuguese alphabet">Portuguese alphabet</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIQR" title="VIQR" class="mw-redirect">VIQR</a>, a standard 7-bit writing convention of the Vietnamese alphabet.</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VISCII" title="VISCII" class="mw-redirect">VISCII</a>, a standard 8-bit encoding of the Vietnamese alphabet.</li></ul>
<a name="Bibliography" id="Bibliography"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>] Bibliography</h2>
<ul><li>Gregerson, Kenneth J. (1969). A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology. Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, 44,
135-193. (Published version of the author's MA thesis, University of
Washington). (Reprinted 1981, Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics).</li><li>Haudricourt, André-Georges. (1949). Origine des particularités de l'alphabet vietnamien. Dân Việt-Nam, 3, 61-68.</li><li>Nguyen, Đang Liêm. (1970). Vietnamese pronunciation. PALI language texts: Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/087022462X" class="internal">ISBN 0-87022-462-X</a></li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1955). Quốc-ngữ: The modern writing system in Vietnam. Washington, D. C.: Author.</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1992). Vietnamese phonology and graphemic borrowings from Chinese: The Book of 3,000 Characters revisited. Mon-Khmer Studies, 20, 163-182.</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.), The world's writing systems, (pp. 691-699). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195079930" class="internal">ISBN 0-19-507993-0</a>.</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1997). Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1556197330" class="internal">ISBN 1-55619-733-0</a>.</li><li>Pham, Andrea Hoa. (2003). Vietnamese tone: A new analysis.
Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Routledge.
(Published version of author's 2001 PhD dissertation, University of
Florida: Hoa, Pham. Vietnamese tone: Tone is not pitch). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415967627" class="internal">ISBN 0-415-96762-7</a>.</li><li>Thompson, Laurence E. (1991). A Vietnamese reference grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824811178" class="internal">ISBN 0-8248-1117-8</a>. (Original work published 1965).</li></ul>
<a name="Further_reading" id="Further_reading"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>] Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Nguyen, A. M. (2006). Let's learn the Vietnamese alphabet. Las Vegas: Viet Baby. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0977648206" class="internal">ISBN 0977648206</a></li><li>Shih, Virginia Jing-yi. Quoc Ngu Revolution: A Weapon of Nationalism in Vietnam. 1991.</li></ul>
<a name="External_links" id="External_links"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>] External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://purl.pt/961" class="external text" title="http://purl.pt/961" rel="nofollow">Scanned version of Alexandre de Rhodes' dictionary</a></li><li><a href="http://www.cjvlang.com/Writing/writsys/writviet.html" class="external text" title="http://www.cjvlang.com/Writing/writsys/writviet.html" rel="nofollow">Vietnamese Writing System</a></li><li><a href="http://www.saigon.com/%7Ediction/articles/my-mi.viq" class="external text" title="http://www.saigon.com/~diction/articles/my-mi.viq" rel="nofollow">Essay comparing the orthography variants</a></li><li><a href="http://vietunicode.sourceforge.net/" class="external text" title="http://vietunicode.sourceforge.net/" rel="nofollow">Vietnamese Unicode FAQs</a></li><li><a href="http://www2.twl.ncku.edu.tw/%7Euibun/chuliau/lunsoat/english/phd/index.htm" class="external text" title="http://www2.twl.ncku.edu.tw/~uibun/chuliau/lunsoat/english/phd/index.htm" rel="nofollow">Doctoral dissertation comparing learning efficiency between quoc ngu and Chinese characters</a></li><li><a href="http://ngonngu.net/index.php?fld=nnh&sub=nguam&pst=chuviet" class="external text" title="http://ngonngu.net/index.php?fld=nnh&sub=nguam&pst=chuviet" rel="nofollow">Chữ viết</a> (in Vietnamese)</li><li><a href="http://just.nicepeople.free.fr/Vietnamese-Typing.htm" class="external text" title="http://just.nicepeople.free.fr/Vietnamese-Typing.htm" rel="nofollow">The right place of the Vietnamese accent</a> a simple rule for learners, on where to put the tonal accent</li><li><a href="http://just.nicepeople.free.fr/kbd/" class="external text" title="http://just.nicepeople.free.fr/kbd/" rel="nofollow">The Vietnamese keyboard</a> its layout is compared with US, UK, Canada, France, and Germany's keyboards.</li></ul>




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penkyamp 發表於 2008-8-17 04:48:41

<h2>Sounds</h2>
<dl><dd>
<div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology</a></div>
</dd></dl>
<a name="Vowels" id="Vowels"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>] Vowels</h3>
Like other southeast Asian languages, Vietnamese has a comparatively large number of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>. Below is a vowel chart of Hanoi Vietnamese.
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th> </th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">High</a></th>
<td>i </td>
<td>ư [ɨ]</td>
<td>u </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Upper Mid</a></th>
<td>ê </td>
<td rowspan="2">â [ə] / ơ [əː]</td>
<td>ô </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Lower Mid</a></th>
<td>e [ɛ]</td>
<td>o [ɔ]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Low</a></th>
<td colspan="3">ă / a </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
Front, central, and low vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded</a>, whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [ə] and ă are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced the same except that ơ [əː]<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_note-11" title=""></a> is long while â [ə] is short — the same applies to the low vowels long a and short ă .<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_note-12" title=""></a>
In addition to single vowels (or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a>), Vietnamese has <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_note-13" title=""></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphthong" title="Triphthong">triphthongs</a>. The diphthongs consist of a main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offglide" title="Offglide" class="mw-redirect">offglide</a> to a high front position [ɪ], a high back position [ʊ], or a central position [ə].<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_note-14" title=""></a>
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Vowel nucleus</th>
<th>Diphthong with front offglide</th>
<th>Diphthong with back offglide</th>
<th>Diphthong with centering offglide</th>
<th>Triphthong with front offglide</th>
<th>Triphthong with back offglide</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>i</th>
<td>–</td>
<td>iu~yu </td>
<td>ia~iê~yê~ya </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>iêu </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ê</th>
<td>–</td>
<td>êu </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>e</th>
<td>–</td>
<td>eo [ɛʊ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ư</th>
<td>ưi [ɨɪ̯]</td>
<td>ưu [ɨʊ̯]</td>
<td>ưa~ươ [ɨə̯]</td>
<td>ươi [ɨə̯ɪ̯]</td>
<td>ươu [ɨə̯ʊ̯]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>â</th>
<td>ây [əɪ̯]</td>
<td>âu [əʊ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ơ</th>
<td>ơi [əːɪ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ă</th>
<td>ay </td>
<td>au </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>a</th>
<td>ai </td>
<td>ao </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>u</th>
<td>ui </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>ua~uô </td>
<td>uôi </td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ô</th>
<td>ôi </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>o</th>
<td>oi [ɔɪ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u) as the main vowel. They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô,
respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. There are also
restrictions on the high offglides: the high front offglide cannot
occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and the high back offglide cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_note-15" title=""></a>.
The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide [ɪ̯] is usually written as i however, it may also be represented with y. In addition, in the diphthongs and the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + [ɪ̯], ai = a + [ɪ̯]. Thus, tay "hand" is while tai "ear" is . Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + [ʊ̯], ao = a + [ʊ̯]. Thus, thau "brass" is while thao "raw silk" is .
The four triphthongs are formed by adding front and back offglides
to the centering diphthongs. Similarly to the restrictions involving
diphthongs, a triphthong with front nucleus cannot have a front
offglide (after the centering glide) and a triphthong with a back
nucleus cannot have a back offglide.
With regards to the front and back offglides [ɪ̯, ʊ̯], many phonological descriptions analyze these as consonant glides /j, w/. Thus, a word such as đâu "where", phonetically [ɗəʊ̯], would be phonemicized as /ɗəw/.
<a name="Tones" id="Tones"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tones">edit</a>] Tones</h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 402px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneNorthern.png" class="image" title="Pitch contours and duration of the six Northern Vietnamese tones (but not Hanoi) as uttered by a male speaker. Fundamental frequency is plotted over time. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)."><img alt="Pitch contours and duration of the six Northern Vietnamese tones (but not Hanoi) as uttered by a male speaker. Fundamental frequency is plotted over time. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/VietnameseToneNorthern.png/400px-VietnameseToneNorthern.png" class="thumbimage" width="400" border="0" height="276"></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneNorthern.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11"></a></div>
Pitch contours and duration of the six Northern Vietnamese tones (but not Hanoi) as uttered by a male speaker. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">Fundamental frequency</a> is plotted over time. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998).</div>
</div>
</div>
Vietnamese vowels are all pronounced with an inherent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_note-16" title=""></a>. Tones differ in:
<ul><li>pitch height</li><li>length (duration)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_contour" title="Pitch contour">pitch contour</a> (i.e. pitch melody)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a></li></ul>
Tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel
(most of the tone diacritics appear above the vowel; however, the nặng tone dot diacritic goes below the vowel).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_note-17" title=""></a> The six tones in the northern varieties (including Hanoi) are:
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Description</th>
<th>Diacritic</th>
<th>Example</th>
<th>Sample vowel</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ngang   'level'</td>
<td>mid level</td>
<td align="center">(no mark)</td>
<td>ma  'ghost'</td>
<td align="center"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Vi_ngang_tone.ogg" class="internal" title="Vi ngang tone.ogg">a</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">help</a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vi_ngang_tone.ogg" title="Image:Vi ngang tone.ogg">info</a>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>huyền   'hanging'</td>
<td>low falling (often breathy)</td>
<td align="center">` (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a>)</td>
<td>mà  'but'</td>
<td align="center"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Vi_huyen_tone.ogg" class="internal" title="Vi huyen tone.ogg">à</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">help</a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vi_huyen_tone.ogg" title="Image:Vi huyen tone.ogg">info</a>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>sắc   'sharp'</td>
<td>high rising</td>
<td align="center">´ (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>)</td>
<td>má  'cheek, mother (southern)'</td>
<td align="center"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Vi_sac_tone.ogg" class="internal" title="Vi sac tone.ogg">á</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">help</a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vi_sac_tone.ogg" title="Image:Vi sac tone.ogg">info</a>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>hỏi   'asking'</td>
<td>mid dipping-rising</td>
<td align="center"> ̉ (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_%28diacritic%29" title="Hook (diacritic)">hook</a>)</td>
<td>mả  'tomb, grave'</td>
<td align="center"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Vi_hoi_tone.ogg" class="internal" title="Vi hoi tone.ogg">ả</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">help</a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vi_hoi_tone.ogg" title="Image:Vi hoi tone.ogg">info</a>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ngã   'tumbling'</td>
<td>high breaking-rising</td>
<td align="center">˜ (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a>)</td>
<td>mã  'horse (Sino-Vietnamese), code'</td>
<td align="center"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Vi_nga_tone.ogg" class="internal" title="Vi nga tone.ogg">ã</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">help</a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vi_nga_tone.ogg" title="Image:Vi nga tone.ogg">info</a>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>nặng   'heavy'</td>
<td>low falling constricted (short length)</td>
<td align="center"> ̣ (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_%28diacritic%29" title="Dot (diacritic)">dot below</a>)</td>
<td>mạ  'rice seedling'</td>
<td align="center"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Vi_nang_tone.ogg" class="internal" title="Vi nang tone.ogg">ạ</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help">help</a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vi_nang_tone.ogg" title="Image:Vi nang tone.ogg">info</a>)</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
Other dialects of Vietnamese have fewer tones (typically only five). See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#Language_variation" title="">language variation section</a> above for a brief survey of tonal differences among dialects.
In Vietnamese poetry, tones are classed into two groups:
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Tone group</th>
<th>Tones within tone group</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>bằng "level, flat"</td>
<td>ngang and huyền</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>trắc "oblique, sharp"</td>
<td>sắc, hỏi, ngã, and nặng</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
Words with tones belonging to particular tone group must occur in certain positions with the poetic verse.
<a name="Consonants" id="Consonants"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>] Consonants</h3>
The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in the Vietnamese <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> with the phonetic pronunciation to the right.
<dl><dd>
<table style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 1em 1em 1em 0pt; background: rgb(249, 249, 249) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-collapse: collapse; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; vertical-align: top; line-height: 1.3em; text-align: center;" border="1" cellpadding="4">
<tbody><tr style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th colspan="2"> </th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroflex" title="Retroflex" class="mw-redirect">Retroflex</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal" title="Palatal" class="mw-redirect">Palatal</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" rowspan="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop" title="Stop">Stop</a></th>
<td style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">voiceless</td>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td>
<td>t </td>
<td>tr [ʈʂ~ʈ]</td>
<td>ch </td>
<td>c/k </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">aspirated</td>
<td> </td>
<td>th </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">voiced</td>
<td>b [ɓ]</td>
<td>đ [ɗ]</td>
<td> </td>
<td>d [ɟ]</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" rowspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative" class="mw-redirect">Fricative</a></th>
<td style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">voiceless</td>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">ph</a> </td>
<td>x </td>
<td>s [ʂ]</td>
<td> </td>
<td>kh </td>
<td>h </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">voiced</td>
<td>v </td>
<td>gi </td>
<td>r [ʐ~ɹ]</td>
<td> </td>
<td>g/gh [ɣ]</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" colspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></th>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilabial_nasal" title="Bilabial nasal">m</a> </td>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_nasal" title="Alveolar nasal">n</a> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_nasal" title="Palatal nasal">nh</a> [ɲ]</td>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal" title="Velar nasal">ng/ngh</a> [ŋ]</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: rgb(239, 239, 239) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; text-align: left; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" colspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant" class="mw-redirect">Approximant</a></th>
<td>u/o </td>
<td>l </td>
<td> </td>
<td>y/i </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a two-letter <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a>
(like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or
digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q").
Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given
word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written
language). See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#Language_variation" title="">language variation section</a> above for further elaboration.
The analysis of syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Hanoi Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch, nh as being phonemes /c, ɲ/ contrasting with syllable-final t, c /t, k/ and n, ng /n, ŋ/ and identifies final ch with the syllable-initial ch /c/. The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophonic" title="Allophonic" class="mw-redirect">allophonic</a> variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur before upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/. (See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Analysis_of_final_ch.2C_nh" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch, nh</a> for further details.) <ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-8"> </li><li id="cite_note-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-9" title="">^</a> In southern dialects, v is reported to have a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation" title="Spelling pronunciation">spelling pronunciation</a> (i.e., the spelling influences pronunciation) of or among educated speakers. However, educated speakers revert to usual in more relaxed speech. Less educated speakers have more consistently throughout their speech. See: Thompson (1959), Thompson (1965: 85, 89, 93, 97-98).</li><li id="cite_note-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-10" title="">^</a> Gregerson (1981) notes that this variation was present in de Rhodes's time in some initial consonant clusters: mlẽ ~ mnhẽ "reason" (cf. modern Vietnamese lẽ "reason").</li><li id="cite_note-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-11" title="">^</a> The symbol ː represents long vowel length.</li><li id="cite_note-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-12" title="">^</a> There are different descriptions of Hanoi vowels. Another common description is that of Thompson (1965):
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th rowspan="2"> </th>
<th rowspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th>
<th rowspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th>
<th colspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>unrounded</th>
<th>rounded</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">High</a></th>
<td>i </td>
<td> </td>
<td>ư [ɯ]</td>
<td>u </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Upper Mid</a></th>
<td>ê </td>
<td> </td>
<td>ơ [ɤ]</td>
<td>ô </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Lower Mid</a></th>
<td>e [ɛ]</td>
<td> </td>
<td>â [ʌ]</td>
<td>o [ɔ]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Low</a></th>
<td>a </td>
<td>ă [ɐ]</td>
<td colspan="2"> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
This description distinguishes four degrees of vowel height and a
rounding contrast (rounded vs. unrounded) between back vowels. The
relative shortness of ă [ɐ] and â [ʌ] would, then, be a secondary feature. Thompson describes the vowel ă [ɐ] as being slightly higher (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">upper low</a>) than a .</li><li id="cite_note-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-13" title="">^</a> In Vietnamese, diphthongs are âm đôi.</li><li id="cite_note-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-14" title="">^</a> The diphthongs and triphthongs as described by Thompson can be compared with the description above:
<table class="multicol" style="background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; width: 100%;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody><tr>
<td valign="top" width="50%" align="left">
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<caption>Thompson's diphthongs</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Vowel nucleus</th>
<th>Front offglide</th>
<th>Back offglide</th>
<th>Centering offglide</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>i</th>
<td>–</td>
<td>iu~yu </td>
<td>ia~iê </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ê</th>
<td>–</td>
<td>êu </td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>e</th>
<td>–</td>
<td>eo [ɛʊ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ư</th>
<td>ưi [ɯɪ̯]</td>
<td>ưu [ɯʊ̯]</td>
<td>ưa~ươ [ɯə̯]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>â</th>
<td>ây [ʌɪ̯]</td>
<td>âu [ʌʊ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ơ</th>
<td>ơi [ɤɪ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ă</th>
<td>ay [ɐɪ̯]</td>
<td>au [ɐʊ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>a</th>
<td>ai </td>
<td>ao </td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>u</th>
<td>ui </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>ua~uô </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ô</th>
<td>ôi </td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>o</th>
<td>oi [ɔɪ̯]</td>
<td>–</td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="50%" align="left">
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<caption>Thompson's triphthongs</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Centering diphthong</th>
<th>Front offglide</th>
<th>Back offglide</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ia ~ iê</th>
<td>–</td>
<td>iêu </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ưa ~ ươ</th>
<td>ươi [ɯ̯əɪ̯]</td>
<td>ươu [ɯə̯ʊ̯]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>ua ~ uô</th>
<td>uôi </td>
<td>–</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</li><li id="cite_note-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-15" title="">^</a> The lack of diphthong consisting of a ơ + back offglide (i.e., [əːʊ̯]) is an apparent gap.</li><li id="cite_note-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-16" title="">^</a> Called thanh điệu in Vietnamese</li><li id="cite_note-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language#cite_ref-17" title="">^</a> Note that the name of each tone has the corresponding tonal diacritic on the vowel.</li></ol> <ul><li class="interwiki-es"><a href="http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_vietnamita">Español</a></li><li class="interwiki-eo"><a href="http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vjetnama_lingvo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interwiki-eo"><a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamien">Français</a></li><li class="interwiki-eo"><a href="http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%88%E3%83%8A%E3%83%A0%E8%AA%9E">日本語</a></li><li class="interwiki-eo"><a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E8%AF%AD">中文</a></li></ul>

penkyamp 發表於 2008-8-17 04:49:34

<h1 class="firstHeading">Vietnamese phonology</h1>

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This article is a technical description the sound system of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a>, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>.
<table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents">
<tbody><tr>
<td>
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
[<a href="javascript:toggleToc()" class="internal" id="togglelink">hide</a>]</div>
<ul><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Consonants">1 Consonants</a>
<ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Hanoi">1.1 Hanoi</a>
<ul><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Analysis_of_final_ch.2C_nh">1.1.1 Analysis of final ch, nh</a></li><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Phonological_processes">1.1.2 Phonological processes</a></li></ul>
</li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Ho_Chi_Minh_City_.28Saigon.29">1.2 Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon)</a>
<ul><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Phonetics">1.2.1 Phonetics</a></li></ul>
</li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Regional_consonant_variation">1.3 Regional consonant variation</a></li></ul>
</li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Vowels">2 Vowels</a>
<ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Monophthongs">2.1 Monophthongs</a></li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Diphthongs_and_triphthongs">2.2 Diphthongs and triphthongs</a></li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Regional_vowel_variation">2.3 Regional vowel variation</a></li></ul>
</li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Tone">3 Tone</a>
<ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Six-tone_analysis">3.1 Six-tone analysis</a>
<ul><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Northern_varieties">3.1.1 Northern varieties</a></li><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Southern_varieties">3.1.2 Southern varieties</a></li><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#North-central_and_Central_varieties">3.1.3 North-central and Central varieties</a></li></ul>
</li><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Eight-tone_analysis">3.2 Eight-tone analysis</a></li></ul>
</li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Syllables_and_phonotactics">4 Syllables and phonotactics</a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Notes">5 Notes</a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#See_also">6 See also</a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#References">7 References</a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Bibliography">8 Bibliography</a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#External_links">9 External links</a></li></ul>
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<a name="Consonants" id="Consonants"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>] Consonants</h2>
Two main varieties of Vietnamese, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Ho Chi Minh City</a>, are described below.
<a name="Hanoi" id="Hanoi"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hanoi">edit</a>] Hanoi</h3>
The 21 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> of the Hanoi variety:
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="2"> </th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labiodental" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental">Labio- 
dental</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/ 
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar">Alveolar</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></th>
<td align="center">m</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">n</td>
<td align="center">ɲ</td>
<td align="center">ŋ</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="3" align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a></th>
<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unaspirated" class="mw-redirect" title="Unaspirated">unaspirated</a></th>
<td align="center">p</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">t</td>
<td align="center">c</td>
<td align="center">k</td>
<td align="center">(ʔ)<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#endnote_glottal_stop1" title=""></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_%28phonetics%29" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></th>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">tʰ</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalized</a></th>
<td>    ɓ</td>
<td> </td>
<td>      ɗ</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative_consonant" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a></th>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">f  v</td>
<td align="center">s̪  z̪</td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">x  ɣ</td>
<td align="center">h   </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant_consonant" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a></th>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">l</td>
<td align="center">j</td>
<td align="center">w</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl><dd><cite id="endnote_glottal_stop1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#ref_glottal_stop1" title="">1</a></cite> Thompson<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-0" title=""></a> posits a glottal stop <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> in a more abstract analysis of Hanoi Vietnamese that would eliminate the phonemes /ɓ, ɗ, v/ by involving sequences of glottal stop + consonant (ʔC). Specifically, he proposes:</dd></dl>
<ul><li>/p/ → </li><li>/ʔp/ → [ʔɓ]</li><li>/t/ → </li><li>/ʔt/ → [ʔɗ]</li><li>/w/ → </li><li>/ʔw/ → [ʔw]</li></ul>
This analysis also simplifies the syllable description so that all syllables have obligatory onsets.
<ul><li>/w/ is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial-velar" class="mw-redirect" title="Labial-velar">labial-velar</a> and always preceded by a consonant or glottal stop (/ʔ/) (though [ʔ] does not occur before in the southern varieties)</li><li>/p/ occurs word-initially only in borrowed vocabulary derived from French. /p/ in Native Vietnamese words occurs only word-finally.</li><li>The glottalized stops are preglottalized and voiced: [ʔɓ, ʔɗ] (i.e., the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottis" title="Glottis">glottis</a>
is always closed before the oral closure). This glottal closure is
often not released before the release of the oral closure, resulting in
the characteristic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosive">implosive</a>
pronunciation. However, sometimes the glottal closure is released prior
to the oral release in which case the stops are pronounced as [ʔb, ʔd]. Therefore, the primary characteristic is preglottalization with implosion being secondary.</li><li>Among the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">coronals</a>:
<ul><li>/tʰ, s, z, l/ are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental</a>: .</li><li>/t, ɗ, n/ are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar">alveolar</a>: .</li><li>/tʰ, l, t, ɗ, n/ are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical</a> (i.e. with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">tongue</a> tip).</li><li>/s, z, c, ɲ/ are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminal_consonant" title="Laminal consonant">laminal</a> (i.e. with the tongue blade).</li><li>HCMC /j/ is not present</li></ul>
</li><li>/c, ɲ/ are phonetically <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatoalveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatoalveolar">palatoalveolar</a> [ṯ, ṉ] (i.e. the blade of the tongue makes contact behind the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_ridge" title="Alveolar ridge">alveolar ridge</a>).</li><li>/c/ is often slightly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate">affricated</a> [ṯʃ], although much less than English . (Note that the English affricate is also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_%28phonetics%29" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> and usually apical, unlike Vietnamese). This affrication, however, is not obligatory.</li></ul>
<a name="Analysis_of_final_ch.2C_nh" id="Analysis_of_final_ch.2C_nh"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Analysis of final ch, nh">edit</a>] Analysis of final ch, nh</h4>
The analysis of syllable-final ch and nh in Hanoi Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis, that of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>) has them as being phonemes /c, ɲ/, where /c/ contrasts with both syllable-final t /t/ and c /k/ and /ɲ/ contrasts with syllable-final n /n/ and ng /ŋ/. Final /c, ɲ/ is, then, identified with syllable-initial /c, ɲ/.
Another analysis has final ch and nh as representing predictable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allophonic">allophonic</a> variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur after upper front vowels /i/ (orthographic i) and /e/ (orthographic ê).
Arguments for the second analysis include the limited distribution of final and [ɲ], the gap in the distribution of and [ŋ], which do not occur after and , and the patterning of / and [ŋ]/[ɲ] in certain reduplicated words. Additionally, final is not usually articulated as far forward as the initial : and [ɲ] are pre-velar . The preceding upper front vowels are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_%28linguistics%29" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">co-articulated</a> as well, resulting in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralization_%28phonetics%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Centralization (phonetics)">centralized</a> variants:
<dl><dd>
<table cellspacing="5">
<tbody><tr>
<td>/ik/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>ich</td>
<td>[ïk̟]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>/iŋ/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>inh</td>
<td>[ïŋ̟]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>/ek/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>êch</td>
<td>[ëk̟] or [əɪk̟]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>/eŋ/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>ênh</td>
<td>[ëŋ̟] or [əɪŋ̟]</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
Finally, this analysis interprets orthographic ach and anh as having a vowel nucleus with a front component. One interpretation considers the orthographic a in these sequences as underlyingly a diphthong /aj/ with a high front off-glide (thus equating it with orthographic ay) — in other words, is /ajk/ and is /ajŋ/. Another interpretation of the orthographic a is that it is underlyingly the vowel /ɛ/, which becomes phonetically centralized and diphthongized: /ɛk/ → , [/ɛŋ/ → .<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-1" title=""></a>
The first analysis closely follows the surface pronunciation of a
slightly different Hanoi dialect than the second. In this dialect, the in and is not diphthongized but is actually articulated more forward, approaching a front vowel [æ]. This results in a three-way contrast between the rimes ăn [æ̈n] vs. anh [æ̈ŋ̟] vs. ăng [æ̈ŋ]. For this reason, a separate phonemic /ɲ/ is posited.
<a name="Phonological_processes" id="Phonological_processes"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phonological processes">edit</a>] Phonological processes</h4>
<ul><li>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> [ʔ] is inserted before words that begin with a vowel or the glide /w/:<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#endnote_glottal_stop1" title=""></a></li></ul>
<dl><dd>
<table style="line-height: 1em;" cellpadding="5">
<tbody><tr>
<td>ăn</td>
<td>'to eat'</td>
<td>/an/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>[ʔan]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>uỷ</td>
<td>'to delegate'</td>
<td>/wi/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>[ʔwij]</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<ul><li>When stops /p, t, k/ occur at the end of words, they are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unreleased" class="mw-redirect" title="Unreleased">unreleased</a> and with accompanying glottal closure [ʔp̚, ʔt̚, ʔk̚]:</li></ul>
<dl><dd>
<table style="line-height: 1em;" cellpadding="5">
<tbody><tr>
<td>đáp</td>
<td>'to reply'</td>
<td>/ɗaːp/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>[ʔɗaːʔp̚]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>mát</td>
<td>'cool'</td>
<td>/maːt/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>khác</td>
<td>'different'</td>
<td>/xaːk/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<ul><li>When the velar consonants /k, ŋ/ follow /u, w/, they are articulated with a simultaneous bilabial closure (i.e. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubly-articulated" class="mw-redirect" title="Doubly-articulated">doubly-articulated</a>) or are strongly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialization">labialized</a> .</li></ul>
<dl><dd>
<table style="line-height: 1em;" cellpadding="5">
<tbody><tr>
<td>đục</td>
<td>'muddy'</td>
<td>/ɗuk/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>[ʔɗuʔk͡p̚]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>độc</td>
<td>'poison'</td>
<td>/ɗɜwk/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>[ʔɗɜwʔk͡p̚]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ung</td>
<td>'cancer'</td>
<td>/uŋ/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>[ʔuŋ͡m]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ong</td>
<td>'bee'</td>
<td>/awŋ/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td>[ʔawŋ͡m]</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<a name="Ho_Chi_Minh_City_.28Saigon.29" id="Ho_Chi_Minh_City_.28Saigon.29"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon)">edit</a>] Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon)</h3>
The 22 consonants of the Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) variety (a.k.a. Saigon variety):
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="2"> </th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labiodental" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental">Labio- 
dental</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/ 
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar">Alveolar</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post- 
alveolar</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a></th>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th colspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a></th>
<td>m</td>
<td> </td>
<td>n</td>
<td> </td>
<td>ɲ</td>
<td>ŋ</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th rowspan="3" align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> 
and 
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate_consonant" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unaspirated" class="mw-redirect" title="Unaspirated">unaspirated</a></th>
<td>p</td>
<td> </td>
<td>t</td>
<td>ʈʂ</td>
<td>c</td>
<td>k</td>
<td>(ʔ)</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_%28phonetics%29" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></th>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>t̺ʰ</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalized</a></th>
<td>ɓ</td>
<td> </td>
<td>ɗ</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th colspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative_consonant" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a></th>
<td> </td>
<td>f (vʲ)</td>
<td>s</td>
<td>ʂ r</td>
<td> </td>
<td>x ɣ</td>
<td>h</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th colspan="2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant_consonant" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a></th>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>l</td>
<td> </td>
<td>j</td>
<td>w</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<a name="Phonetics" id="Phonetics"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonetics">edit</a>] Phonetics</h4>
The HCMC Vietnamese variety is essentially the same as the Hanoi with the following exceptions:
<ul><li>/v/ is generally not present in HCMC. When it is pronounced, it is often a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation" title="Spelling pronunciation">spelling pronunciation</a> in which case it always occurs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization" title="Palatalization">palatalized</a> with a following it: . In addition to this , there is that is present among other speakers. These pronunciations are remnants of a merger and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound change</a> involving /v, z/ in southern speech (/v/ is generally still present in the northern and central regions).</li><li>Hanoi /z/ is not present in HCMC.</li><li>HCMC /l/ is generally slightly more palatalized than the Hanoi variety: .</li><li>In southern speech, the phoneme /r/
has a number of variant pronunciations that depend on the speaker. More
than one pronunciation may even be found within a single speaker. It
may occur as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">retroflex fricative</a> [ʐ], a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">postalveolar fricative</a> [ʒ], a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_tap" title="Alveolar tap">flap</a> [ɾ], a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_trill" title="Alveolar trill">trill</a> , or a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raised_%28phonetics%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Raised (phonetics)">fricative</a> flap/trill [ɾ̝, r̝]. This sound is generally represented in Vietnamese linguistics by the symbol < r >.</li><li>Among the coronals:
<ul><li>/tʰ/ is dental: .</li><li>/t, ɗ, s, n, l/ are alveolar: .</li><li>/t, tʰ, ɗ, s, n/ are apical: .</li><li>/l, c, ɲ/ are laminal: .</li></ul>
</li><li>Unlike Hanoi, the glide /w/ in HCMC when at the beginning of a syllable is not preceded by a glottal stop.</li></ul>
<a name="Regional_consonant_variation" id="Regional_consonant_variation"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regional consonant variation">edit</a>] Regional consonant variation</h3>
At the beginning of syllables, Hanoi /v, z/ appear as HCMC /j/. HCMC /r/ appears as Hanoi /z/, HCMC /c, ʈʂ/ appear as Hanoi /c/, and HCMC /s, ʂ/ appear as Hanoi /s/. The table below summarizes these sound correspondences:
<dl><dd>
<table style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 1em 1em 1em 0pt; background: rgb(249, 249, 249) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-collapse: collapse; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; vertical-align: top; line-height: 1.4em; text-align: center;" border="1" cellpadding="6">
<tbody><tr style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th colspan="5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_onset" title="Syllable onset">Syllable onsets</a></th>
</tr>
<tr style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th rowspan="2">Hanoi</th>
<th rowspan="2">HCMC</th>
<th colspan="3">Example</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th>word</th>
<th>Hanoi</th>
<th>HCMC</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>/v/</td>
<td rowspan="2">/j/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">vợ   "wife"</td>
<td>/vəː/</td>
<td>/(v)jəː/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">/z/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">da   "skin"</td>
<td>/zaː/</td>
<td>/jaː/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>/r/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">ra   "to go out"</td>
<td>/zaː/</td>
<td>/raː/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">/c/</td>
<td>/c/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">chi   "what/why/how"</td>
<td>/ci/</td>
<td>/cɪ/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>/ʈʂ/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">trắng   "white"</td>
<td>/caŋ/</td>
<td>/ʈʂaŋ/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">/s/</td>
<td>/s/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">xa   "far"</td>
<td>/saː/</td>
<td>/saː/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>/ʂ/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">số   "number"</td>
<td>/so/</td>
<td>/ʂo/</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
There are also sound mergers involving syllable-final consonants
among the different regional varieties. These correspondences differ
from the initial consonant correspondences discussed above. Coronals /t, n/ in Hanoi appear as velars /k, ŋ/ in HCMC, except when the coronals occur after the higher front vocalics /i, e, j/, in which case HCMC /t, n/ remain the same as Hanoi /t, n/. Additionally, Hanoi /k, ŋ/ appear as HCMC /t, n/ when they occur after /i, e, j/ (otherwise they are /k, ŋ/):
<dl><dd>
<table style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 1em 1em 1em 0pt; background: rgb(249, 249, 249) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-collapse: collapse; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; vertical-align: top; line-height: 1.4em; text-align: center;" border="1" cellpadding="6">
<tbody><tr style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th colspan="5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_coda" title="Syllable coda">Syllable codas</a></th>
</tr>
<tr style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th rowspan="2">Hanoi</th>
<th rowspan="2">HCMC</th>
<th colspan="3">Example</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th>word</th>
<th>Hanoi</th>
<th>HCMC</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/t/</td>
<td rowspan="2">/k/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">hát   "to sing"</td>
<td>/haːt/</td>
<td>/haːk/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/k/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">thác   "waterfall"</td>
<td>/tʰaːk/</td>
<td>/tʰaːk/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/n/</td>
<td rowspan="2">/ŋ/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">xuân   "spring"</td>
<td>/swɜn/</td>
<td>/swɨŋ/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/ŋ/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">vâng   "to obey"</td>
<td>/vɜŋ/</td>
<td>/(v)jɜŋ/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/t/ after /i, e, j/</td>
<td rowspan="2">/t/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">ít   "few, small in quantity"</td>
<td>/it/</td>
<td>/ɪt/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/k/ after /i, e, j/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">ếch   "frog"</td>
<td>/ɜjk/</td>
<td>/ɜt/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/n/ after /i, e, j/</td>
<td rowspan="2">/n/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">đến   "to arrive"</td>
<td>/ɗen/</td>
<td>/ɗɜn/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: left;">/ŋ/ after /i, e, j/</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">lính   "soldier"</td>
<td>/liŋ/</td>
<td>/lɨn/</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
As can be seen above, vowels also vary among different regions.
<a name="Vowels" id="Vowels"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>] Vowels</h2>
<a name="Monophthongs" id="Monophthongs"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Monophthongs">edit</a>] Monophthongs</h3>
The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> vowel chart of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a> (i.e., simple <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>) below is a composite of the phonetic descriptions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHan1966" title="Vietnamese phonology">Han (1966</a>).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#endnote_monophthongs2" title=""></a> This is a vowel description of Hanoi Vietnamese (i.e., other regions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> may have different inventories).
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th> </th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th>
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a></th>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a></th>
<td>i</td>
<td>ɨ</td>
<td>u</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a></th>
<td>e</td>
<td>əː</td>
<td>o</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a></th>
<td>ɛ</td>
<td>ɜ</td>
<td>ɔ</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<th><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a></th>
<td> </td>
<td>a   aː</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<ul><li>All vowels are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">unrounded</a> except for the three back rounded vowels: /u, o, ɔ/.</li><li>/ɜ/ and /a/ are pronounced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">short</a> — shorter than the other vowels.
<ul><li>/a/ vs. /aː/: Short /a/ (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthographic</a> ă) and long /aː/ (orthographic a) are different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> vowels, differing in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">length</a> only (and not quality). (The [ː] symbol indicates a long vowel.)</li><li>/ɜ/ vs. /əː/: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHan1966" title="Vietnamese phonology">Han (1966</a>) suggests that short /ɜ/ and long /əː/ differ in both height and length, but that the difference in length is probably the primary distinction. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>)
seems to suggest that the distinction is due to height (as he does for
all Vietnamese vowels), although he also notes the length difference.</li></ul>
</li><li>/ɨ/ is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">close central unrounded</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retracted_%28phonetics%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Retracted (phonetics)">backed</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowered_%28phonetics%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Lowered (phonetics)">lowered</a>: [ɨ̞̠]. Many descriptions, such as Thompson,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-2" title=""></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1970" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1970</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>), consider this vowel to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Close back unrounded vowel">close back unrounded</a>: [ɯ]. However, Han's<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-3" title=""></a> instrumental analysis indicates that it is more central than back. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFBrunelle2003" title="Vietnamese phonology">Brunelle (2003</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFPham2003" title="Vietnamese phonology">Pham (2003</a>) also transcribe this vowel as central.</li><li>The high and upper-mid vowels /i, ɨ, u, e, əː, o/ have phonetic offglides: [ɪj, ɨɰ, ʊw, ej, əːɰ, ow], particularly in open syllables:</li></ul>
<dl><dd>
<table style="line-height: 1em;" cellpadding="4">
<tbody><tr>
<td>chị</td>
<td>'elder sister'</td>
<td>/ci/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
<td> </td>
<td>quê</td>
<td>'countryside'</td>
<td>/kwe/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>tư</td>
<td>'fourth'</td>
<td>/tɨ/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
<td> </td>
<td>mơ</td>
<td>'to dream'</td>
<td>/məː/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>thu</td>
<td>'autumn'</td>
<td>/tʰu/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
<td> </td>
<td>cô</td>
<td>'paternal aunt'</td>
<td>/ko/</td>
<td>→</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<a name="Diphthongs_and_triphthongs" id="Diphthongs_and_triphthongs"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diphthongs and triphthongs">edit</a>] Diphthongs and triphthongs</h3>
In addition to monophthongs, Vietnamese has many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triphthong" title="Triphthong">triphthongs</a>. Most of these consist of a vowel followed by /j/ or /w/. Below is a chart<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-4" title=""></a> listing the diphthongs & triphthongs of general northern speech.
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th align="center">/ɜ/ Diphthongs</th>
<th align="center">/j/ Diphthongs/ 
Triphthongs</th>
<th align="center">/w/ Diphthongs/ 
Triphthongs</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/iɜ/</td>
<td align="center">/əːj/</td>
<td align="center">/iw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/ɨɜ/</td>
<td align="center">/ɜj/</td>
<td align="center">/ew/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">/uɜ/</td>
<td align="center">/aːj/</td>
<td align="center">/ɛw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">/aj/</td>
<td align="center">/əːw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">/ɨj/</td>
<td align="center">/ɜw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">/uj/</td>
<td align="center">/aːw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">/oj/</td>
<td align="center">/aw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">/ɔj/</td>
<td align="center">/ɨw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">/ɨɜj/</td>
<td align="center">/iɜw/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td align="center">/uɜj/</td>
<td align="center">/ɨɜw/</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<ul><li>/j/ never follows front vowels /i, e, ɛ/.</li><li>/w/ never follows rounded vowels /u, o, ɔ/.</li></ul>
<a name="Regional_vowel_variation" id="Regional_vowel_variation"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Regional vowel variation">edit</a>] Regional vowel variation</h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>) says that in Hanoi, words spelled with ưu and ươu are pronounced as /iw, iɜw/, respectively, whereas other dialects in the Tonkin delta pronounce them as /ɨw/ and /ɨɜw/. Hanoi speakers that do pronounce these words with /ɨw/ and /ɨɜw/ are using a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation" title="Spelling pronunciation">spelling pronunciation</a>.
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>) also notes that in Hanoi the diphthongs, iê /iɜ/, ươ /ɨɜ/, uô /uɜ/, may be pronounced as /ie, ɨəː, uo/, respectively (as the spelling suggests), but before /k, ŋ/ and in open syllables these are always pronounced /iɜ, ɨɜ, uɜ/.
<a name="Tone" id="Tone"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Tone">edit</a>] Tone</h2>
<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-notice" style="">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="ambox-image">
<div style="width: 52px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="image" title="Wiki letter w.svg"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/36px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" width="36" border="0" height="36"></a></div>
</td>
<td class="ambox-text" style="">Please help <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" class="external text" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" rel="nofollow">improve this section</a> by expanding it. Further information might be found on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Vietnamese_phonology" title="Talk:Vietnamese phonology">talk page</a> or at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requests_for_expansion" title="Wikipedia:Requests for expansion">requests for expansion</a>. (May 2008)</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
 
Vietnamese vowels are all pronounced with an inherent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>. Tones differ in
<ul><li>pitch</li><li>length</li><li>contour melody</li><li>intensity</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> (with or without accompanying constricted vocal cords)</li></ul>
Unlike many Native American, African, and Chinese languages, Vietnamese tones do not rely solely on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_contour" title="Pitch contour">pitch contour</a>. Vietnamese often uses instead a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_complex" title="Register complex">register complex</a>
(which is a combination of phonation type, pitch, length, vowel
quality, etc.). So perhaps a better description would be that
Vietnamese is a register language and not a "pure" tonal language.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-5" title=""></a>
In Vietnamese orthography, tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel.
<a name="Six-tone_analysis" id="Six-tone_analysis"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Six-tone analysis">edit</a>] Six-tone analysis</h3>
There is much variation among speakers concerning how tone is
realized phonetically. There are differences between varieties of
Vietnamese spoken in the major geographic areas (i.e. northern,
central, southern) and smaller differences within the major areas (e.g.
Hanoi vs. other northern varieties). In addition, there seems to be
variation among individuals. More research is needed to determine the
remaining details of tone realization and the variation among speakers.
<a name="Northern_varieties" id="Northern_varieties"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Northern varieties">edit</a>] Northern varieties</h4>
The six tones in the Hanoi and other northern varieties are:
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Description</th>
<th>Chao Tone Contour</th>
<th>Diacritic</th>
<th>Example</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ngang "level"</td>
<td>mid level</td>
<td>˧ (33)</td>
<td align="center">(no mark)</td>
<td>ba 'three'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>huyền "hanging"</td>
<td>low falling (breathy)</td>
<td>˨˩ (21) or (31)</td>
<td align="center">`</td>
<td>bà 'lady'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>hỏi "asking"</td>
<td>mid falling(-rising), harsh</td>
<td>˧˩˧ (313) or (323) or (31)</td>
<td align="center"> ̉</td>
<td>bả 'poison'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ngã "tumbling"</td>
<td>mid rising, glottalized</td>
<td>˧ˀ˥ (3ˀ5) or (4ˀ5)</td>
<td align="center">˜</td>
<td>bã 'residue'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>sắc "sharp"</td>
<td>mid rising, tense</td>
<td>˧ˀ˥ (3ˀ5)</td>
<td align="center">´</td>
<td>bá 'governor'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>nặng "heavy"</td>
<td>mid falling, glottalized, short</td>
<td>˧ˀ˨ʔ (3ˀ2ʔ) or ˧ˀ˩ʔ (3ˀ1ʔ)</td>
<td align="center"> ̣</td>
<td>bạ 'at random'</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 427px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneNorthern.png" class="image" title="Northern Vietnamese (non-Hanoi) tones as uttered by a male speaker in isolation. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)"><img alt="Northern Vietnamese (non-Hanoi) tones as uttered by a male speaker in isolation. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/VietnameseToneNorthern.png/425px-VietnameseToneNorthern.png" class="thumbimage" width="425" border="0" height="293"></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneNorthern.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11"></a></div>
Northern Vietnamese (non-Hanoi) tones as uttered by a male speaker in isolation. From <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85nEdmondson1998" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998</a>)</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 427px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneHanoi.png" class="image" title="Hanoi tones as uttered by a female speaker in isolation. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)"><img alt="Hanoi tones as uttered by a female speaker in isolation. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/VietnameseToneHanoi.png/425px-VietnameseToneHanoi.png" class="thumbimage" width="425" border="0" height="212"></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneHanoi.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11"></a></div>
Hanoi tones as uttered by a female speaker in isolation. From <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85nEdmondson1998" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998</a>)</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 427px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneHanoi2.png" class="image" title="Hanoi tones as uttered by a different female speaker in isolation. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)"><img alt="Hanoi tones as uttered by a different female speaker in isolation. From Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/VietnameseToneHanoi2.png/425px-VietnameseToneHanoi2.png" class="thumbimage" width="425" border="0" height="212"></a>
<div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:VietnameseToneHanoi2.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11"></a></div>
Hanoi tones as uttered by a different female speaker in isolation. From <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85nEdmondson1998" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998</a>)</div>
</div>
</div>
Ngang tone:
<ul><li>The ngang tone is level at around the mid level (33) and is produced with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_voice" title="Modal voice">modal voice</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">phonation</a> (i.e. with "normal" phonation). Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "level"; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>) describes it as "high (or mid) level".</li></ul>
Huyền tone:
<ul><li>The huyền tone starts low-mid and falls (21). Some Hanoi speakers start at a somewhat higher point (31). It is sometimes accompanied by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy voice</a> (or lax) phonation in some speakers, but this is lacking in other speakers: bà = [ʔɓɐ̤ː˨˩] or [ʔɓaː˨˩].<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-6" title=""></a> Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "grave-lowering"; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>) describes it as "low falling".</li></ul>
Hỏi tone:
<ul><li>The hỏi tone starts a mid level and falls. It starts with modal voice phonation, which moves increasingly toward <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense voice">tense voice</a> with accompanying <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_voice" title="Harsh voice">harsh voice</a>
(although the harsh voice seems to vary according to speaker). In
Hanoi, the tone is mid falling (31). In other northern speakers, the
tone is mid falling and then rises back to the mid level (313 or 323).
This characteristic gives this tone its traditional description as
"dipping". However, the falling-rising contour is most obvious in
citation forms or when syllable-final; in other positions and when in
fast speech, the rising contour is negligible. The hỏi also is relatively short compared with the other tones, but not as short as the nặng tone. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "smooth-rising"; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>) describes it as "dipping-rising".</li></ul>
Ngã tone:
<ul><li>The ngã tone is mid rising (35). Many speakers begin the vowel with modal voice, followed by strong <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky voice</a>
starting toward the middle of the vowel, which is then lessening as the
end of the syllable is approached. Some speakers with more dramatic
glottalization have a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> closure in the middle of the vowel (i.e. as ).
In Hanoi Vietnamese, the tone starts at a higher pitch (45) than other
northern speakers. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as
"chesty-raised"; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>) describes it as "creaking-rising".</li></ul>
Sắc tone:
<ul><li>The sắc tone starts as mid and then rises (35) in much the same way as the ngã tone. It is accompanied by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense voice">tense voice</a> phonation throughout the duration of the vowel. In some Hanoi speakers, the ngã tone is noticeably higher than the sắc tone, for example: sắc = ˧˦ (34); ngã = ˦ˀ˥ (45). Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) describes this as "acute-angry"; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>) describes it as "high (or mid) rising".</li></ul>
Nặng tone:
<ul><li>The nặng tone starts mid or low-mid and rapidly falls in
pitch (32 or 21). It starts with tense voice that becomes increasing
tense until the vowel ends in a glottal stop closure. This tone is
noticeably shorter than the other tones. Alexandre de Rhodes (1651)
describes this as "chesty-heavy"; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>) describes it as "constricted".</li></ul>
<a name="Southern_varieties" id="Southern_varieties"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Southern varieties">edit</a>] Southern varieties</h4>
<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-notice" style="">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="ambox-image">
<div style="width: 52px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="image" title="Wiki letter w.svg"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/36px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" width="36" border="0" height="36"></a></div>
</td>
<td class="ambox-text" style="">Please help <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" class="external text" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" rel="nofollow">improve this section</a> by expanding it. Further information might be found on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Vietnamese_phonology" title="Talk:Vietnamese phonology">talk page</a> or at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requests_for_expansion" title="Wikipedia:Requests for expansion">requests for expansion</a>. (May 2008)</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
 
<a name="North-central_and_Central_varieties" id="North-central_and_Central_varieties"></a>
<h4>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: North-central and Central varieties">edit</a>] North-central and Central varieties</h4>
<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-notice" style="">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="ambox-image">
<div style="width: 52px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="image" title="Wiki letter w.svg"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/36px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" width="36" border="0" height="36"></a></div>
</td>
<td class="ambox-text" style="">Please help <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" class="external text" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" rel="nofollow">improve this section</a> by expanding it. Further information might be found on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Vietnamese_phonology" title="Talk:Vietnamese phonology">talk page</a> or at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requests_for_expansion" title="Wikipedia:Requests for expansion">requests for expansion</a>. (May 2008)</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
 
North-central and Central Vietnamese varieties are fairly similar with
respect to tone although within the North-central dialect region there
is considerable internal variation.
<a name="Eight-tone_analysis" id="Eight-tone_analysis"></a>
<h3>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Eight-tone analysis">edit</a>] Eight-tone analysis</h3>
<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-notice" style="">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="ambox-image">
<div style="width: 52px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="image" title="Wiki letter w.svg"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/36px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" width="36" border="0" height="36"></a></div>
</td>
<td class="ambox-text" style="">Please help <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" class="external text" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit" rel="nofollow">improve this section</a> by expanding it. Further information might be found on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Vietnamese_phonology" title="Talk:Vietnamese phonology">talk page</a> or at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requests_for_expansion" title="Wikipedia:Requests for expansion">requests for expansion</a>. (May 2008)</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
 
<ul><li>See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFPham2003" title="Vietnamese phonology">Pham (2003</a>)</li></ul>
<a name="Syllables_and_phonotactics" id="Syllables_and_phonotactics"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Syllables and phonotactics">edit</a>] Syllables and phonotactics</h2>
According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHannas1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Hannas (1997</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_Ng%E1%BB%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Quốc Ngữ">Quốc Ngữ</a> can represent 6,200 syllables (tones included[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">vague</a>] ), but only about 4,500 to 4,800 are used depending on dialect (Quốc Ngữ is designed to accommodate different dialects).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-7" title=""></a>
The Vietnamese <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable structure</a> follows the scheme:
<dl><dd>
<dl><dd>(C1)(w)V(C2)+T</dd></dl>
</dd></dl>
where
<dl><dd>
<table style="background: rgb(249, 249, 249) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0">
<tbody><tr>
<td valign="top">
<ul><li>C1 = initial consonant onset</li><li>w = bilabial glide /w/</li><li>V = vowel nucleus</li></ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul><li>C2 = final consonant coda</li><li>T = tone.</li></ul>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
In other words, a syllable can optionally have one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_onset" title="Syllable onset">onset</a> consisting of single consonant or a consonant and the glide /w/ and an optional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_coda" title="Syllable coda">coda</a>. The vowel nucleus may have an additional glide element.
More explicitly, the syllable types are as follows:
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-size: 85%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<th>Syllable</th>
<th>Example</th>
<th>Syllable</th>
<th>Example</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>V</td>
<td> </td>
<td>wV</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>VC</td>
<td> </td>
<td>wVC</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>VC</td>
<td> </td>
<td>wVC</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>CV</td>
<td> </td>
<td>CwV</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>CVC</td>
<td> </td>
<td>CwVC</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>CVC</td>
<td> </td>
<td>CwVC</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
C1:
Any consonant may occur in as an onset with the following exceptions:
<ul><li>/p/ does not occur in native Vietnamese words</li><li>/j/ does not occur in Hanoi, but it does occur in HCMC and other varieties (due to sound change)</li></ul>
w:
<ul><li>/w/ does not occur after labial consonants /ɓ, f, v, m, w/</li><li>/w/ does not occur after /n/ in native Vietnamese words (it occurs in uncommon Sino-Vietnamese borrowings)</li><li>the sequences /hw, kw/ appears in HCMC as , excepting spelling pronunciations</li></ul>
V:
The vowel nucleus V may be any of the following 14 monophthongs or diphthongs: /i, ɨ, u, e, əː, o, ɛ, ɜ, ɔ, a, aː, iɜ, ɨɜ, uɜ/.
G:
C2:
The optional coda C2 is restricted to labial, coronal, & velar stops /p, t, k/ and nasals /m, n, ŋ/.
T:
Syllables are spoken with an inherent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone contour</a>.
All tone contours are possible for open syllables (syllables without
consonant codas). If the syllable is closed only 2 contours are
possible, that is the sắc and the nặng tone.
<a name="Notes" id="Notes"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>] Notes</h2>
<dl><dd><cite id="endnote_monophthongs2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#ref_monophthongs2" title="">2</a></cite> </dd></dl>
Below is a table comparing four linguists' different transcriptions
of Vietnamese vowels as well as the orthographic representation. Notice
that this article is mostly following <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHan1966" title="Vietnamese phonology">Han (1966</a>).
<dl><dd>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption>comparison of orthography & vowel descriptions</caption>
<tbody><tr align="center">
<th>Orthography</th>
<th>Wikipedia</th>
<th>Thompson<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-8" title=""></a></th>
<th>Han<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-9" title=""></a></th>
<th>Nguyễn<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-10" title=""></a></th>
<th>Đoàn<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_note-11" title=""></a></th>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>i</td>
<td>i</td>
<td>iː</td>
<td>i</td>
<td>i</td>
<td>i</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>ê</td>
<td>e</td>
<td>eː</td>
<td>e</td>
<td>e</td>
<td>e</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>e</td>
<td>ɛ</td>
<td>ɛː</td>
<td>ɛ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>ɛ</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>ư</td>
<td>ɨ</td>
<td>ɯː</td>
<td>ɨ</td>
<td>ɯ</td>
<td>ɯ</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>u</td>
<td>u</td>
<td>uː</td>
<td>u</td>
<td>u</td>
<td>u</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>ô</td>
<td>o</td>
<td>oː</td>
<td>o</td>
<td>o</td>
<td>o</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>o</td>
<td>ɔ</td>
<td>ɔː</td>
<td>ɔ</td>
<td>ɔ</td>
<td>ɔ</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>ơ</td>
<td>əː</td>
<td>ɤː</td>
<td>ɜː</td>
<td>əː</td>
<td>ɤː</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>â</td>
<td>ɜ</td>
<td>ʌ</td>
<td>ɜ</td>
<td>ə</td>
<td>ɤ</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>a</td>
<td>aː</td>
<td>æː</td>
<td>ɐː</td>
<td>ɐː</td>
<td>aː</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>ǎ</td>
<td>a</td>
<td>ɐ</td>
<td>ɐ</td>
<td>ɐ</td>
<td>a</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>) says that the vowels [ʌ] (orthographic â) and [ɐ] (orthographic ă) are shorter than all of the other vowels, which is shown here with the length mark [ː]
added to the other vowels. His vowels above are only the basic vowel
phonemes. Thompson gives a very detailed description of each vowel's
various allophonic realizations.
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHan1966" title="Vietnamese phonology">Han (1966</a>)
uses acoustic analysis, including spectrograms and format measuring
& plotting, to describe the vowels. She states that the primary
difference between orthographic ơ & â and a & ă is a difference of length (a ratio of 2:1). ơ = /ɜː/, â = /ɜ/; a = /ɐː/, ă = /ɐ/. Her format plots also seem show that /ɜː/ may be slightly higher than /ɜ/ in some contexts (but this would be secondary to the main difference of length).
Another thing to mention about Han's studies is that she uses a
rather small number of participants and, additionally, although her
participants are native speakers of the Hanoi variety, they all have
lived outside of Hanoi for a significant period of their lives (i.e. in
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Ho Chi Minh City</a>).
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>)
has a simpler, more symmetrical description. He says that his work is
not a "complete grammar" but rather a "descriptive introduction." So,
his chart above is more a phonological vowel chart rather than a
phonetic one.
<a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>] See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phonetics_topics" title="List of phonetics topics">List of phonetics topics</a></li></ul>
<a name="References" id="References"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>] References</h2>
<div class="references-small">
<ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-0" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1959" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1959</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>)</li><li id="cite_note-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-1" title="">^</a> Although there are some words where c and ng occur after orthographic /ɛ/, these words are few and are mostly loanwords or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">onomatopoeia</a></li><li id="cite_note-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-2" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1959" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1959</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>)</li><li id="cite_note-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-3" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHan1966" title="Vietnamese phonology">Han (1966</a>)</li><li id="cite_note-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-4" title="">^</a> From <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>)</li><li id="cite_note-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-5" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFPham2003" title="Vietnamese phonology">Pham (2003</a>:?)</li><li id="cite_note-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-6" title="">^</a> For example, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85nEdmondson1998" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn & Edmondson (1998</a>) show a male speaker from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nam_Dinh_Province" title="Nam Dinh Province">Nam Định</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lax_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lax voice">lax voice</a> and a female speaker from Hanoi with breathy voice for the huyền tone while another male speaker from Hanoi has modal voice for the huyền.</li><li id="cite_note-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-7" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHannas1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Hannas (1997</a>:88)</li><li id="cite_note-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-8" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFThompson1965" title="Vietnamese phonology">Thompson (1965</a>)</li><li id="cite_note-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-9" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFHan1966" title="Vietnamese phonology">Han (1966</a>)</li><li id="cite_note-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-10" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997" title="Vietnamese phonology">Nguyễn (1997</a>)</li><li id="cite_note-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#cite_ref-11" title="">^</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#CITEREF.C4.90o.C3.A0n1980" title="Vietnamese phonology">Đoàn (1980</a>)</li></ol>
</div>
<a name="Bibliography" id="Bibliography"></a>
<h2>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_phonology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>] Bibliography</h2>
<ul><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFBrunelle2003">Brunelle, Marc (2003), "<a href="http://aix1.uottawa.ca/%7Embrunell/Viet%20coarticulation.pdf" class="external text" title="http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~mbrunell/Viet%20coarticulation.pdf" rel="nofollow">Coarticulation effects in northern Vietnamese tones</a>.", Proceedings of the 15th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%5Bhttp%3A%2F%2Faix1.uottawa.ca%2F%7Embrunell%2FViet%2520coarticulation.pdf+Coarticulation+effects+in+northern+Vietnamese+tones%5D.&rft.title=Proceedings+of+the+15th+International+Conference+of+Phonetic+Sciences&rft.aulast=Brunelle&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft.date=2003"> </li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREF.C4.90o.C3.A0n1980">Đoàn, Thiện Thuật (1980), Ngữ âm tiếng Việt, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hà Nội</a>: Đại học và Trung học Chuyên nghiệp</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=Ng%E1%BB%AF+%C3%A2m+ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t&rft.aulast=%C4%90o%C3%A0n&rft.aufirst=Thi%E1%BB%87n+Thu%E1%BA%ADt&rft.date=1980&rft.place=%5B%5BHanoi%7CH%C3%A0+N%E1%BB%99i%5D%5D&rft.place=%5B%5BHanoi%7CH%C3%A0+N%E1%BB%99i%5D%5D&rft.pub=%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+h%E1%BB%8Dc+v%C3%A0+Trung+h%E1%BB%8Dc+Chuy%C3%AAn+nghi%E1%BB%87p"> </li><li>Đoàn, Thiện Thuật; Nguyễn, Khánh Hà, Phạm, Như Quỳnh. (2003). A Concise Vietnamese Grammar (For Non-Native Speakers). Hà Nội: Thế Giới Publishers, 2001.</li><li>Earle, M. A. (1975). An acoustic study of northern Vietnamese tones. Santa Barbara: Speech Communications Research Laboratory, Inc.</li><li>Ferlus, Michel. (1997). Problemes de la formation du systeme vocalique du vietnamien. Asie Orientale, 26 (1), .</li><li>Gregerson, Kenneth J. (1969). A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology. Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, 44,
135-193. (Published version of the author's MA thesis, University of
Washington). (Reprinted 1981, Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics).</li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFHan1966">Han, Mieko (1966), Vietnamese vowels, Studies in the phonology of Asian languages, 4, Los Angeles: Acoustic Phonetics Research Laboratory: University of Southern California</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=Vietnamese+vowels&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Mieko&rft.date=1966&rft.volume=4&rft.place=Los+Angeles%3A+Acoustic+Phonetics+Research+Laboratory&rft.place=Los+Angeles%3A+Acoustic+Phonetics+Research+Laboratory&rft.pub=University+of+Southern+California"> </li><li>Han, Mieko S. (1968). Complex syllable nuclei in Vietnamese.
Studies in the phonology of Asian languages (Vol. 6); U.S. Office of
Naval Research. Los Angeles: University of Southern California.</li><li>Han, Mieko S. (1969). Vietnamese tones. Studies in the
phonology of Asian languages (Vol. 8). Los Angeles: Acoustic Phonetics
Research Laboratory, University of Southern California.</li><li>Han, Mieko S.; & Kim, Kong-On. (1972). Intertonal influences in two-syllable utterances of Vietnamese.
Studies in the phonology of Asian languages (Vol. 10). Los Angeles:
Acoustic Phonetics Research Laboratory, University of Southern
California.</li><li>Han, Mieko S.; & Kim, Kong-On. (1974). Phonetic variation of Vietnamese tones in disyllabic utterances. Journal of Phonetics, 2, 223-232.</li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas, William (1997), <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=aJfv8Iyd2m4C&pg=PA73&dq=asian+hannas+vietnamese&sig=IrY5TMuvmE0NeOv8gjzME1m1TI0" class="external text" title="http://books.google.com/books?id=aJfv8Iyd2m4C&pg=PA73&dq=asian+hannas+vietnamese&sig=IrY5TMuvmE0NeOv8gjzME1m1TI0" rel="nofollow">Asia's Orthographic Dilemma</a>, University of Hawaii Press</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=%5Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaJfv8Iyd2m4C%26pg%3DPA73%26dq%3Dasian%2Bhannas%2Bvietnamese%26sig%3DIrY5TMuvmE0NeOv8gjzME1m1TI0+Asia%27s+Orthographic+Dilemma%5D&rft.aulast=Hannas&rft.aufirst=William&rft.date=1997&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press"> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Georges_Haudricourt" title="André-Georges Haudricourt">Haudricourt, André-Georges</a>. (1949). Origine des particularités de l'alphabet vietnamien. Dân Việt-Nam, 3, 61-68.</li><li>Haudricourt, André-Georges. (1954). De l'origine des tons en vietnamien. Journal Asiatique, 142 (1).</li><li>Haupers, Ralph. (1969). A note on Vietnamese kh and ph. Mon-Khmer Studies, 3, 76.</li><li>Hoàng, Thị Châu. (1989). Tiếng Việt trên các miền đất nước: Phương ngữ học. Hà Nội: Khoa học xã hội.</li><li>Michaud, Alexis. (2004). Final consonants and glottalization: New perspectives from Hanoi Vietnamese. Phonetica 61(2-3) (2004) pp. 119-146. <a href="http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00130119" class="external text" title="http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00130119" rel="nofollow">Preprint version</a></li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1970">Nguyễn, Đăng-Liêm (1970), Vietnamese pronunciation, PALI language texts: Southeast Asia., Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/087022462X" class="internal">ISBN 0-87022-462-X</a></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=Vietnamese+pronunciation&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C4%83ng-Li%C3%AAm&rft.date=1970&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.isbn=0-87022-462-X"> </li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1955). Quốc-ngữ: The modern writing system in Vietnam. Washington, D. C.</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1959). Hòa's Vietnamese-English dictionary. Saigon. (Revised as Nguyễn 1966 & 1995).</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1966). Vietnamese-English dictionary. Rutland, VT: C.E. Tuttle Co. (Revised version of Nguyễn 1959).</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1992). Vietnamese phonology and graphemic borrowings from Chinese: The Book of 3,000 Characters revisited. Mon-Khmer Studies, 20, 163-182.</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1995). NTC's Vietnamese-English dictionary (rev. ed.). Lincolnwood, IL.: NTC Pub. Group. (Revised & expanded version of Nguyễn 1966).</li><li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.), The world's writing systems, (pp. 691-699). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195079930" class="internal">ISBN 0-19-507993-0</a>.</li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85n1997">Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà (1997), Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1556197330" class="internal">ISBN 1-55619-733-0</a></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=Vietnamese%3A+Ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t+kh%C3%B4ng+son+ph%E1%BA%A5n&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C3%ACnh-Ho%C3%A0&rft.date=1997&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.isbn=1-55619-733-0"> </li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFNguy.E1.BB.85nEdmondson1998">Nguyễn,
Văn Lợi & Edmondson, Jerold A (1998), "Tones and voice quality in
modern northern Vietnamese: Instrumental case studies", Mon-Khmer Studies 28: 1-18</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=Tones+and+voice+quality+in+modern+northern+Vietnamese%3A+Instrumental+case+studies&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=V%C4%83n+L%E1%BB%A3i&rft.date=1998&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=1-18"> </li><li>Pham, Hoa. (2001). A phonetic study of Vietnamese tones:
Reconsideration of the register flip-flop rule in reduplication. In C.
Féry, A. D. Green, & R. van de Vijver (Eds.), Proceedings of HILP5
(pp. 140-158). Linguistics in Potsdam (No. 12). Potsdam: Universität
Potsdam (5th conference of the Holland Institute of
Linguistics-Phonology. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3935024274" class="internal">ISBN 3-935024-27-4</a>.</li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFThompson1959">Thompson, Laurence (1959), "Saigon phonemics", Language 35(3): 454-476</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=Saigon+phonemics&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft.date=1959&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=454-476"> </li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFThompson1967">Thompson, Laurence (1967), "The history of Vietnamese final palatals", Language 43(1): 362-371</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=The+history+of+Vietnamese+final+palatals&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft.date=1967&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=362-371"> </li><li><cite style="font-style: normal;" id="CITEREFThompson1965">Thompson, Laurence (1965), A Vietnamese reference grammar (1 ed.), Seattle: University of Washington Press.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.title=A+Vietnamese+reference+grammar&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft.date=1965&rft.edition=1&rft.place=Seattle&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press."> </li><li>Thurgood, Graham. (2002). Vietnamese and tonogenesis: Revising the model and the analysis. Diachronica, 19 (2), 333-363.</li></ul>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhaz_phonology" title="Abkhaz phonology">Abkhaz</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Arabic</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_phonology" title="Belarusian phonology">Belarusian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_phonology" title="Bengali phonology">Bengali</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_phonology" title="Catalan phonology">Catalan</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_phonology" title="Czech phonology">Czech</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_phonology" title="Danish phonology">Danish</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_phonology" title="Dutch phonology">Dutch</a> · English: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Old</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">Modern</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English_phonology" title="Australian English phonology">Australian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_phonology" title="Esperanto phonology">Esperanto</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_phonology" title="Finnish phonology">Finnish</a> · French: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_phonology" title="French phonology">Standard</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_French_phonology" title="Quebec French phonology">Quebec</a> · German: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernese_German_phonology" title="Bernese German phonology">Bernese</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_phonology" title="German phonology">Standard</a> · Greek: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_phonology" title="Ancient Greek phonology">Ancient</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology" title="Koine Greek phonology">Koine</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Greek_phonology" title="Modern Greek phonology">Modern</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_phonology" title="Gujarati phonology">Gujarati</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_phonology" title="Hawaiian phonology">Hawaiian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_phonology" title="Hebrew phonology">Hebrew</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi-Urdu_phonology" title="Hindi-Urdu phonology">Hindi-Urdu</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_phonology" title="Hungarian phonology">Hungarian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_phonology" title="Icelandic phonology">Icelandic</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit_phonology" title="Inuit phonology">Inuit</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_phonology" title="Irish phonology">Irish</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_phonology" title="Italian phonology">Italian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology" title="Japanese phonology">Japanese</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiowa_phonology" title="Kiowa phonology">Kiowa</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_phonology" title="Korean phonology">Korean</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_spelling_and_pronunciation" title="Latin spelling and pronunciation">Latin</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_phonology" title="Macedonian phonology">Macedonian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahal_phonology" title="Mahal phonology">Mahal</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapudungun_phonology" title="Mapudungun phonology">Mapudungun</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_phonology" title="Marathi phonology">Marathi</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_phonology" title="Navajo phonology">Navajo</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_phonology" title="Norwegian phonology">Norwegian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ojibwe_phonology" title="Ojibwe phonology">Ojibwe</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_phonology" title="Persian phonology">Persian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_phonology" title="Polish phonology">Polish</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_phonology" title="Portuguese phonology">Portuguese</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Proto-Indo-European</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_phonology" title="Romanian phonology">Romanian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_phonology" title="Russian phonology">Russian</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesotho_phonology" title="Sesotho phonology">Sesotho</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali_phonology" title="Somali phonology">Somali</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_phonology" title="Spanish phonology">Spanish</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_phonology" title="Swedish phonology">Swedish</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagalog_phonology" title="Tagalog phonology">Tagalog</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_phonology" title="Tamil phonology">Tamil</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taos_phonology" title="Taos phonology">Taos</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_phonology" title="Turkish phonology">Turkish</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubykh_phonology" title="Ubykh phonology">Ubykh</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_phonology" title="Ukrainian phonology">Ukrainian</a> · Vietnamese · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_phonology" title="Welsh phonology">Welsh</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_phonology" title="Yiddish phonology">Yiddish</a> · <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuni_phonology" title="Zuni phonology">Zuni</a>
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<div id="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Language_phonologies" title="Category:Language phonologies">Language phonologies</a> | <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Vietnamese_language" title="Category:Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a> <ul><li class="interwiki-wuu"><a href="http://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E7%B3%BB">吴语</a></li><li class="interwiki-zh"><a href="http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E8%AA%9E%E9%9F%B3%E7%B3%BB">中文</a></li></ul> </div>

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